Glass Ceilng Effect

’GLASS CEILING’ EFFECT

Today, though women hold numerous positions in the workforce, research indicates that women are underrepresented in upper echelons of America’s corporate system: women hold only 14.7% of Fortune 500 board seats (Catalyst, 2006). The underrepresentation of females and minorities to leadership roles exist because of the presence of formal and informal barriers that place a limit, or ceiling on achievement (Catalyst, 2006). According to Linda Skrla (2000), this is not a new phenomenon and much has not changed over the last 40 years and these invisible barriers preventing women from ascending into elite leadership positions is commonly referred to as the ‘glass ceiling’ effect.

Women’s under representation in high-level leadership positions is stated to revolve around three types of explanations: human capitol differences, gender differences, and prejudice (Northouse, 2007). First, for human capitol differences, women occupy more than half of all the management and professional positions (Catalyst, 2005), but have fewer opportunities for development and fewer responsibilities in the same jobs than men do. Secondly, they are less likely to receive encouragement, be included in key networks, and receive formal job training than their male counterparts (Catalyst, 2005). Lastly, these disparities appear to exist across all levels within the organization, industry section, as well as in access, advancement, and earnings (Northouse, 2007).

Gender differences are often seen as related to effective leadership with men tending to show more assertiveness than women (Franke, Crowne, & Spake, 1997). Additionally, gender bias, stemming from stereotyped expectations, plays a significant role in selection process – ‘women take care and men take charge’ (Goree-Burns, 1998). Therefore, prejudice and bias appears to help explain why there is greater difficulty for women to be appointed into leadership roles (Eagly & Karau, 2002).

SOCIAL VALUES

According to studies, society responds several ways to women and men who are leaders. These differences appear to affect women’s capabilities to be leaders. The recent United States of America elections are a case in point. Numerous and conflicting thoughts emerged about electing the first woman president. Similarly, there is male dominance even in the United States of America military.

In this society, according to Hilary Lips, chair of the Psychology Department and director of the Center for Gender Studies at Radford University, power for women and men leaders “operates differently as a social structure which is totally based on a cultural system of dominance” (2009). Basically, the practices which encompasses “power system includes patterns of discourage, shared understanding and participation in a set of values, expectations, norms and roles” (Lips, 2009). Additionally, “responses given to women and men in leadership role are also based on social structure dominated by men” (Lips, 2009). There are almost similar leadership traits and behaviors posed by men and women leaders, however, “women leaders are shown a different reaction than male leaders because of learned expectations, shaped and supported by the surrounding social structure that invalidate and undercut women’s ability to be effective, influential and powerful leaders” (Lips, 2009). The following quotation attests to society’s perception of women as leaders:

People think ‘male’ when they think leaders. Because of this perceived incompatibility between the requirement of femininity and those of leadership, women are often required to soften their leadership style to gain the approval of their task. Women who lead with an autocratic style are the targets of more disapproval than those who enact a more democratic style. In the same condition men may choose autocratic style. Thoughts and opinion of women are not listened and often discouraged; their comment and suggestions are ignored, even if they are very useful and that the same comments or suggestions from men have more impact (Lips, 2009).

            There several roles that can only be performed by women in a family set-up such giving birth to baby or as a primary care giver. These unavoidable role-playing creates difficulties for women to be effective leaders because women cannot contribute their utmost effort on work and hence, decreased performance and reduced capabilities as effective leaders. Moreover, a leadership position requires working at least full time and flexibility in terms of workload but women cannot be very flexible because of their primary role in a family.